Playing an instrument is not just a fun hobby, but it also has a wide range of cognitive benefits. Studies have shown that playing an instrument can improve memory, focus, and even increase IQ. But how does playing an instrument actually affect the brain? In this article, we will explore the science behind the benefits of instrument mastery and how it can unlock new potential in the brain. Whether you’re a beginner or a seasoned pro, this article will provide valuable insights into the power of music and its impact on the brain. So, let’s get started and discover how playing an instrument can help you unlock your brain’s full potential.
The Power of Instrument Mastery: An Overview
The Art of Instrumental Performance
Understanding the Skill of Instrumental Performance
The art of instrumental performance involves a complex interplay of cognitive and motor skills. To become proficient in playing an instrument, a musician must possess a high level of dexterity, precision, and timing. The skill of instrumental performance requires a combination of physical coordination, memory, attention, and perception.
Developing Fine Motor Skills
Playing an instrument requires the development of fine motor skills. The movements of the fingers, hands, and arms must be precise and coordinated to produce the desired sound. Repeated practice and performance can lead to the development of these skills, which can also have a positive impact on hand-eye coordination and overall physical dexterity.
Enhancing Auditory Perception
Instrumental performance also enhances auditory perception. Musicians must have a keen sense of hearing to be able to produce the correct notes and maintain the appropriate rhythm. Playing an instrument can help develop this sense of auditory perception, which can also benefit other areas of life, such as language and communication.
Improving Memory and Attention
Playing an instrument also requires a high level of memory and attention. Musicians must remember the notes, rhythms, and lyrics of a piece, as well as the techniques and techniques required for proper execution. This repetitive process can lead to an improvement in memory and attention, which can have a positive impact on other cognitive abilities.
Cultivating Creativity and Emotional Expression
Finally, instrumental performance can also cultivate creativity and emotional expression. Musicians can use their instruments to express themselves and communicate their emotions to others. Playing an instrument can also foster creativity, as musicians are constantly exploring new techniques and sounds to enhance their performances.
The Science Behind Instrument Mastery
Neuroplasticity and the Brain
The human brain is a complex and remarkable organ, capable of remarkable feats of adaptation and learning. One of the key concepts in understanding the science behind instrument mastery is neuroplasticity, which refers to the brain’s ability to change and adapt in response to new experiences and stimuli.
How Neuroplasticity Works
When we learn to play an instrument, our brains undergo a series of changes that allow us to develop new neural pathways and strengthen existing ones. This process is facilitated by the release of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, which help to reinforce new connections between neurons.
The Importance of Practice
Practice is essential to achieving instrument mastery, as it allows us to reinforce these new neural pathways and make them more permanent. By repeatedly engaging in a particular musical task, we are able to strengthen the relevant neural circuits and improve our overall performance.
The Benefits of Instrument Mastery
The process of instrument mastery has been shown to have a range of cognitive and emotional benefits, including improved memory, attention, and executive function. Additionally, playing an instrument has been linked to reduced stress and anxiety, and may even have therapeutic applications for a range of mental health conditions.
Brain Structures Involved in Instrument Mastery
Several brain structures are involved in instrument mastery, including the cerebellum, the basal ganglia, and the prefrontal cortex. These structures work together to coordinate motor movements, process sensory information, and plan and execute complex musical tasks.
The Cerebellum
The cerebellum is a key structure involved in instrument mastery, as it is responsible for coordinating motor movements and maintaining balance and posture. The cerebellum also plays a role in learning and memory, and has been shown to be particularly active when we are learning to play a new instrument.
The Basal Ganglia
The basal ganglia are a group of nuclei located in the base of the brain, and are involved in the coordination of motor movements and the learning of new skills. The basal ganglia have been shown to be particularly active when we are learning to play a new instrument, and are thought to play a key role in the development of instrument mastery.
The Prefrontal Cortex
The prefrontal cortex is a region of the brain located at the front of the brain, and is involved in a range of cognitive processes, including planning, decision-making, and working memory. The prefrontal cortex has been shown to be particularly active when we are learning to play a new instrument, and is thought to play a key role in the development of instrument mastery.
Genetic Factors and Instrument Mastery
Research has suggested that genetic factors may play a role in determining our ability to achieve instrument mastery. For example, certain genetic variations have been linked to differences in musical ability and the ability to learn new skills. However, more research is needed to fully understand the role of genetics in instrument mastery.
Benefits of Instrument Mastery for the Brain
Enhanced Memory Function
Research has shown that playing an instrument can lead to significant improvements in memory function. The process of learning and practicing an instrument requires the brain to retain and recall large amounts of information, including notes, rhythms, and techniques. This constant repetition and retrieval of information strengthens neural connections in the brain, leading to better memory retention and recall abilities.
Studies have demonstrated that musicians, particularly those who have been playing an instrument for several years, have better working memory and long-term memory compared to non-musicians. In fact, research has shown that musical training can lead to significant improvements in verbal memory, spatial memory, and even visual-spatial memory.
In addition to enhancing memory function, playing an instrument has also been shown to improve other cognitive abilities, such as attention, processing speed, and executive function. These benefits are likely due to the complex demands of playing an instrument, which require the musician to focus, process information quickly, and make decisions on the fly.
Overall, the benefits of instrument mastery for memory function are significant and far-reaching. Whether you are a beginner or an experienced musician, playing an instrument can have a positive impact on your brain and cognitive abilities.
Improved Cognitive Skills
Playing an instrument can significantly improve cognitive skills, including memory, attention, and processing speed. Here’s how:
Memory
Research has shown that playing an instrument can improve memory function by strengthening neural connections in the brain. Musicians often have better working memory and long-term memory compared to non-musicians, which allows them to retain and recall information more efficiently. This improved memory function can also have positive effects on other areas of life, such as academic performance and job productivity.
Attention
Playing an instrument requires intense focus and concentration, which can lead to improved attention skills. Musicians must constantly adjust their playing to keep up with the tempo and rhythm, which requires sustained attention and the ability to filter out distractions. This increased attention control can also translate to better performance in other areas of life, such as work and school.
Processing Speed
Playing an instrument also improves processing speed, which is the ability to quickly and accurately process information. Musicians have been found to have faster processing speeds compared to non-musicians, which allows them to react quickly to changes in their environment. This improved processing speed can lead to better performance in tasks that require quick decision-making and problem-solving.
Overall, playing an instrument can have significant positive effects on cognitive skills, which can translate to better performance in other areas of life. So, whether you’re a beginner or an experienced musician, picking up an instrument can be a great way to improve your brain function.
Increased Focus and Attention
Playing an instrument can significantly improve a person’s ability to focus and pay attention. This is because playing an instrument requires the player to concentrate on a variety of different tasks simultaneously, such as reading sheet music, adjusting posture, and controlling the instrument. As a result, playing an instrument can help develop the cognitive skills necessary for improved focus and attention.
Research has shown that playing an instrument can increase gray matter in the brain, which is associated with a variety of cognitive functions, including attention and memory. Additionally, playing an instrument has been shown to increase activity in the parts of the brain responsible for attention and executive function, including the prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex.
Moreover, playing an instrument can help train the brain to focus on specific tasks for extended periods of time, which can lead to improved attention and concentration in other areas of life. This is because playing an instrument requires sustained focus and attention over an extended period of time, which can help strengthen the neural connections responsible for attention and concentration.
In summary, playing an instrument can provide a number of cognitive benefits, including increased focus and attention. By developing the ability to concentrate on multiple tasks simultaneously, playing an instrument can help improve overall cognitive function and lead to better attention and concentration in other areas of life.
The Effects of Instrument Mastery on Brain Development
Structural Changes in the Brain
Research has shown that playing an instrument can lead to significant structural changes in the brain. These changes occur as a result of the complex neural processes involved in learning and performing music.
One of the most notable structural changes is the development of a larger corpus callosum, which is the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain. This increased connectivity is thought to improve communication between the two hemispheres, leading to enhanced cognitive function and better overall brain performance.
Another structural change that occurs with instrument mastery is the growth of gray matter in specific regions of the brain. Gray matter is responsible for processing information and is critical for a wide range of cognitive functions, including memory, attention, and perception. The growth of gray matter in response to musical training suggests that playing an instrument may have a positive impact on cognitive function.
In addition to changes in the corpus callosum and gray matter, instrument mastery has also been shown to lead to increased cortical thickness in areas of the brain involved in processing sound and speech. This thickening of the cortex is thought to result from the extensive neural processing required for musical performance.
Overall, the structural changes that occur in the brain as a result of instrument mastery suggest that playing an instrument can have a profound impact on brain development and cognitive function. As such, musical training may be a valuable tool for improving cognitive abilities and enhancing overall brain health.
Functional Brain Improvements
- Improved Coordination:
- Enhanced fine motor skills through repetitive movements and finger dexterity exercises.
- Improved body awareness and kinesthetic sense.
- Increased Attention and Focus:
- Demands of reading sheet music and memorizing songs require sustained focus and attention.
- Develops cognitive control, which allows for better multitasking and task persistence.
- Enhanced Memory Function:
- Memorizing songs and pieces improves working memory and long-term memory consolidation.
- Improved ability to retrieve information from memory, leading to better academic performance.
- Better Processing Speed:
- Improved neural efficiency in processing visual and auditory information.
- Faster reaction times and better coordination between different brain regions.
- Boosted Creativity:
- Develops imagination and problem-solving skills through musical expression.
- Enhances ability to think outside the box and find alternative solutions.
- Increased Plasticity and Neurogenesis:
- Playing an instrument promotes neurogenesis, or the growth of new neurons in the brain.
- Improved neural plasticity, allowing for greater adaptability and resilience to changes in the environment.
Neuroplasticity and Instrument Mastery
Instrument mastery has a significant impact on the brain’s development. The concept of neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s ability to change and adapt in response to experiences. Playing an instrument requires a range of cognitive and motor skills, which can lead to the strengthening and development of neural pathways in the brain.
Research has shown that instrumental music training can lead to improvements in various cognitive functions, including:
- Working memory
- Attention
- Processing speed
- Inhibitory control
- Spatial reasoning
These improvements are thought to be the result of the repetitive and focused nature of instrumental practice, which leads to the formation of new neural connections and the strengthening of existing ones.
Moreover, instrument mastery has been linked to changes in the structure and function of specific brain regions, such as the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in executive functioning, and the cerebellum, which is responsible for motor control and coordination.
In addition to the cognitive benefits, instrument mastery has also been shown to have positive effects on emotional well-being and stress reduction.
Overall, the development of instrument mastery can lead to significant improvements in brain function and overall well-being.
The Role of Practice in Instrument Mastery
The Importance of Repetition
- Repetition is a key component of mastering an instrument
- It allows musicians to internalize muscle memory and develop automaticity
- This frees up mental resources for more complex tasks
- Repetition also aids in the development of finger dexterity and hand-eye coordination
- Regular practice with repetition is essential for progress and mastery
- However, it is important to balance repetition with variation and new challenges to avoid plateauing and boredom
- Consistent and focused practice with repetition leads to significant improvements in technical proficiency and musical expression
- Overall, repetition is a critical element in the journey towards instrument mastery.
Mastering Techniques and Skills
Mastering techniques and skills is a crucial aspect of instrument mastery. This involves developing the physical abilities necessary to play an instrument effectively. The following are some of the techniques and skills that must be mastered to become proficient in playing an instrument:
Developing Finger Dexterity
Finger dexterity is an essential skill for instrumentalists. It involves the ability to manipulate the fingers independently to perform various tasks, such as pressing keys, strings, or valves. To develop finger dexterity, instrumentalists engage in repetitive finger exercises that improve the coordination and speed of the fingers.
Enhancing Sense of Timing
A good sense of timing is critical in instrumental music. Instrumentalists must be able to synchronize their playing with the rest of the ensemble or orchestra. This requires the development of a keen sense of rhythm and timing. Musicians practice rhythmic exercises to improve their sense of timing and maintain a steady beat.
Improving Coordination and Motor Skills
Playing an instrument requires the coordination of multiple physical movements. Instrumentalists must learn to coordinate their hands, fingers, and arms to produce the desired sound. They must also develop motor skills to control the instrument’s mechanics, such as pressing keys or strings.
Cultivating Musicality and Expression
In addition to technical skills, instrumentalists must also cultivate musicality and expression. This involves developing the ability to interpret and express the emotions and nuances of the music. Musicians practice listening to recordings, attending concerts, and studying the music theory to enhance their musical understanding and expression.
Refining Performance Techniques
Mastering techniques and skills also involves refining performance techniques. This includes developing the ability to control dynamics, articulation, and phrasing. Instrumentalists practice these techniques to achieve a more expressive and nuanced performance.
In summary, mastering techniques and skills is a critical aspect of instrument mastery. It involves developing physical abilities, enhancing the sense of timing, improving coordination and motor skills, cultivating musicality and expression, and refining performance techniques. With consistent practice and dedication, instrumentalists can master these techniques and skills to become proficient in playing their chosen instrument.
Building Confidence and Self-Esteem
Playing an instrument can help build confidence and self-esteem in several ways. Firstly, when you learn to play an instrument, you set specific goals for yourself. As you progress through each stage of learning, you achieve these goals, which can boost your confidence. Secondly, performing in front of others, whether it’s in a recital or a casual setting, can help you overcome stage fright and build confidence in your abilities. Finally, playing an instrument can be a solitary activity, but it can also be a social one, depending on the context. Building relationships with other musicians, whether it’s through a band or an orchestra, can help you develop social skills and increase your self-esteem. Overall, playing an instrument can be a powerful tool for building confidence and self-esteem, and can have a positive impact on many areas of your life.
Overcoming Obstacles in Instrument Mastery
Dealing with Performance Anxiety
One of the most common obstacles faced by musicians when attempting to master their instrument is performance anxiety. This is a natural and common reaction to the pressure of performing in front of others, but it can become debilitating if left unchecked. Fortunately, there are several strategies that musicians can use to manage their performance anxiety and improve their playing.
First, it’s important to understand that performance anxiety is a normal part of the learning process. Every musician experiences it to some degree, and it’s a sign that you care about your performance. However, it’s important to keep your anxiety in check, as it can interfere with your ability to play at your best.
One effective strategy for managing performance anxiety is to practice relaxation techniques. These can include deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and visualization exercises. By taking the time to focus on your breathing and relax your muscles, you can reduce your overall level of anxiety and help yourself to feel more calm and centered on stage.
Another useful strategy is to break down your performance into smaller, more manageable pieces. This can help you to focus on one section at a time, rather than becoming overwhelmed by the entire performance. It can also be helpful to set small, achievable goals for yourself, such as playing a certain section of a piece with a certain level of accuracy or expressiveness.
Finally, it’s important to remember that everyone makes mistakes. Even the most accomplished musicians experience performance anxiety from time to time. The key is to be kind to yourself and to recognize that making mistakes is a natural part of the learning process. By embracing your mistakes and using them as opportunities to learn and grow, you can develop a more positive and resilient approach to playing your instrument.
Addressing Physical Limitations
Understanding Physical Limitations
Physical limitations are an inherent aspect of instrument mastery. The intricate relationship between the body and the instrument is a complex one, requiring an individual to have precise control over their movements and posture. The positioning of fingers, arms, and shoulders must be accurately coordinated to produce the desired sound. However, these physical limitations are not static, and with consistent practice, they can be overcome.
The Importance of Technique
Developing proper technique is essential in addressing physical limitations. A skilled musician can identify the most efficient and effective way to hold the instrument and execute movements. Through the guidance of a music teacher or mentor, an individual can learn proper posture, hand placement, and breathing techniques to optimize their playing. These techniques are not only beneficial in overcoming physical limitations but also in preventing injuries and reducing muscle tension.
The Role of Repetition
Repetition is a vital component in overcoming physical limitations. It allows the body to develop muscle memory, which in turn, improves the ability to execute movements with precision. Repetition also aids in the identification of weaknesses and areas that require improvement. Consistent practice allows the musician to refine their technique, enabling them to overcome physical limitations and perform at a higher level.
Embracing Patience and Persistence
Addressing physical limitations requires patience and persistence. It is important to recognize that progress may not be immediate, and setbacks may occur. However, by continuing to practice and seeking guidance from a music teacher, an individual can overcome these obstacles. Embracing a growth mindset and a willingness to persevere through challenges is crucial in the journey towards instrument mastery.
Balancing Practice with Other Activities
While mastering an instrument is a rewarding pursuit, it requires dedication and discipline. Balancing instrument practice with other activities can be challenging, but it is essential for maintaining a healthy work-life balance and avoiding burnout.
Setting Realistic Goals
Setting realistic goals is key to balancing instrument practice with other activities. Goals should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). For example, a goal could be to practice 30 minutes a day, five days a week. This approach helps maintain motivation and ensures that progress is being made without sacrificing other important areas of life.
Time Management
Effective time management is crucial for balancing instrument practice with other activities. Musicians can use time management techniques such as prioritizing tasks, creating schedules, and setting reminders to stay on track. For example, setting aside specific blocks of time for practice, and scheduling other activities around them. This approach ensures that time is used efficiently and effectively.
Breaks and Rest
Taking breaks and rest is essential for avoiding burnout and maintaining motivation. Musicians should take breaks between practice sessions and give themselves time to rest and recharge. Rest helps to prevent physical and mental fatigue, which can negatively impact performance. Breaks can also help to refresh the mind and provide time for creative thinking.
Balancing Multiple Instruments
For musicians who play multiple instruments, balancing practice time can be especially challenging. It is important to prioritize which instrument to practice based on upcoming performances or personal goals. Musicians can also consider setting specific goals for each instrument and allocating practice time accordingly. This approach ensures that each instrument receives adequate attention without overwhelming the musician.
Overall, balancing instrument practice with other activities requires discipline and time management skills. By setting realistic goals, prioritizing tasks, taking breaks, and allocating practice time effectively, musicians can maintain a healthy work-life balance while making progress in their instrument mastery journey.
Instrument Mastery: A Lifelong Journey
Maintaining Interest and Motivation
- The journey towards instrument mastery is a long and arduous one, and it requires a great deal of dedication and commitment.
- As you progress through your instrument-playing journey, it is common to experience ups and downs in terms of motivation and interest.
- It is essential to find ways to maintain your interest and motivation in order to continue making progress and reaping the benefits of instrument mastery.
- Here are some tips for maintaining interest and motivation:
- Set achievable goals: Setting achievable goals can help you stay motivated and focused on your progress.
- Experiment with different genres and styles: Experimenting with different genres and styles of music can help keep your practice sessions fresh and exciting.
- Perform for others: Performing for others, whether it be family, friends, or a larger audience, can provide a sense of accomplishment and motivation to continue improving.
- Learn from others: Engaging with other musicians and learning from their experiences and techniques can help you stay motivated and inspired.
- Find joy in the process: Remember to find joy in the process of learning and playing an instrument, rather than solely focusing on the end result.
Adapting to Change and Evolving Styles
Mastering an instrument is a journey that demands constant adaptation and evolution. As a musician progresses, they must continuously learn new techniques, styles, and genres to maintain their skill level and remain relevant in the music industry. Adapting to change and evolving styles are crucial aspects of instrument mastery that can have a profound impact on a musician’s brain.
- Neuroplasticity and Brain Change
- Instrument mastery triggers neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to change and adapt in response to new experiences.
- Research suggests that regular musical practice can lead to structural and functional changes in the brain, particularly in areas responsible for motor control, auditory processing, and memory.
- Musicians who continually challenge themselves by learning new styles and techniques can enhance their brain’s plasticity, potentially promoting cognitive resilience and protecting against age-related decline.
- Cognitive Flexibility and Creativity
- Adapting to change and evolving styles requires cognitive flexibility, the ability to switch between different modes of thinking and adapt to new situations.
- Musicians who regularly explore new genres and styles develop greater cognitive flexibility, which can benefit other aspects of their lives, such as problem-solving and decision-making.
- Moreover, this exposure to diverse musical styles can foster creativity by encouraging the integration of different influences and promoting out-of-the-box thinking.
- Benefits for Lifelong Learning
- Instrument mastery can instill a growth mindset, the belief that abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work.
- Embracing change and evolving styles can inspire a lifelong commitment to learning, as musicians understand that continuous improvement is essential for staying competitive and relevant in the music industry.
- This mindset can have far-reaching implications, extending beyond the realm of music to enrich other areas of life, such as personal relationships, career development, and mental well-being.
Continuing to Grow as a Musician
Mastering an instrument is a lifelong journey that requires dedication, patience, and a willingness to continually challenge oneself. As a musician progresses, they may face new obstacles and opportunities for growth. To continue growing as a musician, it is important to set new goals, seek out new experiences, and remain open to feedback and criticism.
Setting New Goals
Setting new goals is an essential part of continuing to grow as a musician. Whether it’s learning a new piece, improving technique, or expanding musical knowledge, setting goals helps keep musicians motivated and focused. Goals should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART), and should be revisited and revised regularly to ensure continued progress.
Seeking Out New Experiences
Seeking out new experiences is another important aspect of continuing to grow as a musician. This can include attending concerts, workshops, and masterclasses, collaborating with other musicians, and exploring different genres and styles of music. These experiences can help musicians develop new skills, broaden their musical horizons, and keep them inspired and engaged.
Remaining Open to Feedback and Criticism
Finally, remaining open to feedback and criticism is crucial for continued growth as a musician. While it can be difficult to receive constructive criticism, it is an essential part of the learning process. By listening to and incorporating feedback from teachers, peers, and other musicians, musicians can identify areas for improvement and continue to refine their skills and abilities.
In conclusion, continuing to grow as a musician requires a commitment to setting new goals, seeking out new experiences, and remaining open to feedback and criticism. By embracing these principles, musicians can continue to develop their skills and abilities, deepen their musical understanding, and unlock the many benefits of instrument mastery.
Further Reading and Resources
Delving deeper into the realm of instrument mastery, one can find a wealth of resources to aid in the journey towards musical proficiency. Books on music theory and instrument mastery provide invaluable insights into the intricacies of playing an instrument, while online resources offer a vast array of educational materials and practice tools. Additionally, local music schools and teachers offer personalized guidance and support to aspiring musicians.
- Books on Music Theory and Instrument Mastery
- Books such as “The Musician’s Way” by Gerald Klickstein and “The Art of Practicing” by Madeline Bruser offer comprehensive guidance on the art of practicing and mastering an instrument.
- Books on music theory, such as “The Complete Guide to Music Theory” by Mike Mahoney, provide a solid foundation in the fundamentals of music theory, enabling musicians to better understand the underlying structure of the music they play.
- Online Resources for Music Education and Practice
- Websites such as Musica Neo offer a wide range of sheet music, music scores, and online practice tools, allowing musicians to access resources from anywhere in the world.
- Platforms like YouTube offer a wealth of tutorials and performances, providing inspiration and guidance for musicians of all levels.
- Local Music Schools and Teachers
- Local music schools and teachers offer personalized guidance and support to aspiring musicians, helping them overcome challenges and develop their skills.
- Many music schools also offer opportunities for collaboration and performance, providing musicians with the chance to hone their skills in a live setting.
FAQs
1. What are the benefits of playing an instrument for the brain?
Answer: Playing an instrument has been shown to have numerous benefits for the brain. It can improve cognitive abilities such as memory, attention, and problem-solving skills. Playing an instrument also promotes neural plasticity, which is the brain’s ability to change and adapt in response to new experiences. Additionally, playing an instrument has been linked to improved executive functioning, which involves the ability to plan, organize, and complete tasks.
2. Is there a specific type of instrument that is better for brain development?
Answer: No, research suggests that all types of instruments can provide cognitive benefits. However, some studies have found that playing a musical instrument that requires precise motor skills, such as the piano or the violin, may have additional benefits for hand-eye coordination and fine motor skills.
3. How long does it take to see improvements in brain function from playing an instrument?
Answer: The amount of time it takes to see improvements in brain function from playing an instrument can vary depending on the individual and the frequency and intensity of their practice. Some studies have found that as little as six months of instrument training can lead to improvements in cognitive abilities. However, it is important to note that consistent and regular practice is key to seeing long-term benefits.
4. Are there any risks associated with playing an instrument for the brain?
Answer: There are no known risks associated with playing an instrument for the brain. In fact, playing an instrument has been shown to have numerous benefits for cognitive functioning and overall brain health. However, it is important to approach instrument practice with care and attention to avoid injury to the hands or other parts of the body.
5. Can playing an instrument improve cognitive abilities in individuals of all ages?
Answer: Yes, research suggests that playing an instrument can improve cognitive abilities in individuals of all ages. Studies have found that children who receive musical training have better memory and language abilities than those who do not receive musical training. Additionally, adults who take up instrument playing later in life have been found to experience improvements in cognitive functioning, including executive functioning and memory.
